In this article, for the first time in Russian Oriental studies, a comprehensive reconstruction of biographies of Mongol military commanders who led campaigns against the state of Koryŏ in 1218–1260 is undertaken. Noting that the general chronology of the military campaigns of this period has been covered in considerable detail in world historiography, the author aims to fill the gap concerning the identities of these commanders, their origins, and their place within the military hierarchy. The source base of the study comprises Korean and Chiŏnese chronicles and historical works: Koryŏsa, Koryŏsa chŏryo, Tongguk pyŏnggam, Yuán shǐ, Yuán shǐ shìzú biǎo, Wén Tíngshì’s Yuán Gāolí jìshì, Kē Shàomín’s Xīn Yuán shǐ, and Huáng yuánshèng wǔ qīnzhēng lù, as well as The Secret History of the Mongols and works of Rashīd al-Dīn and Juvaynī. As a result of a comparative analysis of the source texts and their collation with existing historiographical literature in Russian, English, Korean, and Chinese, the biographies of ten military commanders, who successively or simultaneously led incursions onto the Korean Peninsula, have been reconstructed with varying degrees of reliability: Qachi’un, Saritai, Púlǐ Dàiwán, Tege-Qorči (Díjù), Tangut, Amuqan, Yěgū, Čelodai, Fuboda, and Yesuder. All of them held high command positions, ranging from leaders of embassies and major military campaigns to commanders of thousand-strong units who participated in negotiations. Among other findings, their heterogeneous ethnic composition was revealed: among them were representatives of the Genghisid lineage, the Jürchen nobility, and individuals from various Mongol tribes. The collected information can fill the lacuna regarding the individuals who determined the course of Koryŏ history in the 13^th century and make a new contribution to the study of the early stage of Mongol-Koryŏ relations.

This paper examines the adoption process of Chinese legal codes from the Koryŏ to the Chosŏn periods and the subsequent changes of Korea’s legal system. Although Koryŏ organized its legal system based on the Tang code 唐律, it also adopted various other Chinese laws as needed. The Yuan 元 (1271-1368) demanded legal reforms from Koryŏ, but Koryŏ opposed, citing differences in social foundation. Eventually, the Yuan succeeded in prohibiting consanguineous marriage but failed in reforming the slave system. As a kingdom ruled by royal law, Koryŏ had weak legal stability, and so its society was in disorder. At the end of the 14th century, Koryŏ adopted the Great Ming Code 大明律to revise the legal disorder, and the legal code was carried over to the Chosŏn dynasty. The sixfold division of the Rites of Zhou 周禮 became the foundation of the Koryŏ government organization, and during the Chosŏn period, it became not only the basis for government organization but also a model for compiling legal codes. In the late 14th century, the adoption of Neo-Confucianism and Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 (1130-1120) Family Rituals transformed the gender-equal family structure into a patriarchal one. This transformation began with a shift from uxorilocal marriage to virilocal marriage and proceeded toward excluding women from ancestral rites and strengthening the inheritance rights of men and eldest sons. By the late 19th century, patriarchy was de facto established and was further reinforced during the colonial period. Furthermore, as time passed, many unique Chosŏn provisions that differed from the Great Ming Code emerged in criminal law, leading to its Chosŏn localization. However, Chosŏn emphasized ethical norms such as social status relationships more than China.
The characteristic of adopting Chinese law in the traditional period was the proactive and autonomous adoption of those that fitted our needs. This approach remains meaningful even in the 21st century, when the world continues to integrate.